Ebay Case Study

Characteristics of digital media that support eBay is storage. Data is one of the most important assets to any business same goes to storage that eBay needs to save their customer data. If they lack of storage they will face the problems such as lost product data, high technology security that help eBay to keep their information save. Due to its absolute volume, how and where eBay store this ever-growing pool of data has become more important than ever. The IT infrastructure must be able to scale with growth and continue to provide consistent levels of performance for the sake of eBay. Storing data is not just about how and where, but also the speed in which it can be accessed, manipulated, and presented where it can ease eBay's customer. Next characteristic of digital media that support eBay is community. Community media can play an important role in helping eBay to use storytelling to communicate and advance eBay's mission. Community media canters provide community members entree to the tools and training they need to produce digital stories. There are three ways community media can help use storytelling to start a meaningful dialogue and create modification. First, use storytelling as a community development strategy. It is through judicious storytelling that community media can help turn a community's shared experiences and concerns into a big picture. This big picture lays the foundation for an effective community development strategy for eBay. Secondly, use storytelling as an instrument for citizen empowerment. Personal stories facilitate deeper connections between people. Storytelling reaches the heart of decision-makers who often forget the predicament of the people; this is where storytelling begins to create power and empowerment. And lastly, use storytelling to build social capital. Social capital refers to personal relationships people have developed over time that enable them to influence human capital, policy-making or community initiatives. Other than that, digital communication also one of the characteristic of digital media that support eBay. Digital conversation is a powerful medium for delivering the data. In virtual global, visible communication is a perfect style of conveying your brand info by means of the use of the image, video, or minimal texts. Digital conversation may be a drawing, a commercial, a poster or any visible fabric you could find on line on social media structures. These days, the net is occupied by way of visible content and everything is revealed with the help of visual media. In addition, the characteristics of digital media that support eBay also include data. The sheer volume of data coupled with the improved analysis skills to be had these days approach that groups now have the potential to get a higher information of the way their customers behave within the beyond and present in addition to probable the future. This veritable wealth of records can be mined and manipulated into actionable information which could help remedy key business issues, promote extra products or services, and the entirety in between. Facts analytics has emerge as a vital aggressive differentiation from which most any enterprise can advantage. Lastly, ratings and reviews also one of the characteristics that include in eBay's. Ratings and reviews are the maximum essential assets of information during the customer buying process. Users are eager to verify their purchase decisions, and strive to do so using social media and real-time feedback from other users as their primary source. Good ratings and reviews will instantly create a sign of trust to others customer. The five characteristic of eBay was the most important to growth their income.

Alcohol and Society Essay Essay

Throughout history, society has engaged in taking substances such as alcohol, that alter our physical being or our psychological state of mind. There are many experiences and pressures that force people to feel like they have to drink in order to cope with life, but for many alcohol is a part of everyday life, just like any other beverage. Alcohol is introduced to us in many ways, through our family, television, movies, and friends’. These â€Å"sociocultural variants are at least as important as physiological and psychological variants when we are trying to understand the interrelations of alcohol and human behavior†#. How we perceive drinking and continue drinking can be determined by the drinking habits we see, either by who we drink with, or the attitudes about drinking we learn over the years. The chances of people drinking in ways that can harm others and ultimatley themselves can be seen by the correlation of educational lessons, cultural beliefs and the usage of alcohol. Looking at all the possibilities, the complex question we must ask is why do people drink? Is it through their defiance of law, the accessibility of alcohol, teachings of others or the values set in place in their society? Every society has its own views on how the consumption of alcohol should be handled and regulated. Their differences create a trickle effect of how it is used, and is distinctive to that culture or society. Many cultures drinking habits go hand in hand with religion, and social customs. Drinking alcohol is in many cases a part of extensive learned tradition, where people pride themselves with their ability to hold their liquor. In countries where alcohol is part of the â€Å"norm†, the outcomes of drinking habits or the effects of alcohol are much different, â€Å"A population that drinks daily may have a high rate of cirrhosis and other medical problems but few accidents, fights, homicides, or other violent alcohol-associated conflicts; a population with predominantly binge drinking shows the opposite complex of drinking problems†#. It has been observed that cultures with rich traditions and acceptance of alcohol use tend to deal less with the typical alcohol related problems, compared to the cultures who treat alcohol as an escape or something that will make them better in the eyes of others. In these societies, like the U. S. alcohol hasn’t always been present and grown to be accepted through rich tradition. The amount of regulations and negative views on drinking in the U. S. has led to abuse and deviancy, creating a high frequency of alcoholics. People drink in many ways, for many different reasons. We drink socially, to gain acceptance into a group. We drink alone to ease stress, to cope with our problems, or we â€Å"drink because we like the taste or how it makes us feel†#. Often drinking is a learned behavior, starting out as a social drinker; you quickly become psychologically and physically dependent. When someone reaches this stage they are often classified as an alcoholic. To an alcoholic, drinking becomes a compulsion; they cannot stop themselves from having another drink, like a social drinker can. In many cases alcoholics don’t even have to drink continuously in order to be an alcoholic. One the problems of alcohol addiction is that it’s something that doesn’t just effect the individual but it effects, friends and family as well. Spouse abuse, child abuse and dysfunctional family relationships can all be influenced by alcohol abuse. In the United States alone the drinking patterns throughout history have changed dramatically to reflect the times. Starting out in colonial times the usage of alcohol use was seen as a blessing, and harmless to society. It was acceptable to drink while at work, and during social events, however drinking alone was highly frowned upon. Many early religions believed that alcohol was a gift from God, â€Å"man should partake of God’s gift with out wasting or abusing it†#. To enhance and encourage the social aspect of drinking, Taverns were built as a meeting hall where people of all ages could go and drink; it was considered the center of social life. Even children in colonial times were coaxed into drinking as soon as they were old enough to drink from a glass. Parents in this time hoped to teach the children at this young stage to drink in small amounts so that later in life they wouldn’t misuse alcohol. Later on in the 19th century, the Taverns of colonial times eventually all changed into the more modern Saloon. A place where all men could gather to get away from their families. During the existence of the saloon the Christian church began to see the consumption of alcohol as an evil, and no longer accepted alcohol as the universal drink of the church. Today the effects of history are seen through the defiance of alcohol use and the probing reverence to abstinence, which is rarely practiced, but when it is, it goes largely un-respected by society. In many cultures through history, alcohol has been viewed to have positive influences in society. Its usage has been seen to enhance social abilities within a group, as well as increased relaxation and enjoyment in the company of others. The usage of alcohol extends further than social aspects, until the early 20th century alcohol had been used in medicinal practices and was a key ingredient in most over-the-counter medicines. Supporters of early alcohol use argued, â€Å"It gave courage to the soldier, endurance to the traveler, foresight to the statesman, and inspiration to the preacher. It sustained the sailor and the plowman. The trader and the trapper†#. In the United Kingdom for example, society favors drinking so much that bars in that country now attract people of both genders, through new legislations in that county social drinking is widely accepted, but heavy drinking and alcohol related problems remain in disapproval. To many, alcohol use is an aspect of their way of life, that if left out could possibly change their culture forever. Many people would argue that drinking is a learned behavior, however everyone learns about alcohol differently, causing different cultural and social views of acceptance. The U. S. treats alcohol as a substance that our children should never come in contact with. In many other societies it is believed that the earlier you encourage drinking among children the better drinking practices they will retain through out their lives. Italian culture allows their young to drink moderate amounts of alcohol as a part of everyday life, at family gatherings it is seen as a normal and natural food. Jewish culture treats alcohol as a sacred part of everyday life; their religion and rich culture create a continuous relationship with alcohol. Compared to the U. S. , there are many countries that do allow their youth to drink to start drinking at a young age, and they have seen decreased problems with violence, vandalism and drinking and driving. Children outside of the U. S. , who are introduced to alcohol as a part of their regular family life, learn to drink more responsibly and drink moderately while still young. Alcohol has been a part of Western Civilization for over 25 centuries. Over time there have been many governmental controls placed on the usage of alcohol in the U. S. When the need for control over this substance was demanded by a large part of the American population, the government responded with the Prohibition of alcohol in 1920. Largely influenced by religion and the temperance movement, many thought this measure would eradicate the use of alcohol. What they didn’t know was that laws couldn’t always be enforced. What did erupt out of Prohibition was an even higher demand for alcohol, which was met by the Mafia, who made millions by selling alcohol on the Black Market. Often time’s fear of something can be our biggest downfall. It effects our ability to move forward, to accept things the way they are and have the confidence that everything is going to be all right. When something such as alcohol is defined as bad or harmful to us, it becomes a psychological battle, to find good in it. So in our country the fear of alcohol gives it a negative image, it is rejected as a normal part of behavior because of its destructive effects, through peoples’ abuse of the substance. The negativity of alcohol in our country out weighs any potential to look at it the way other societies do, and change our views on it. â€Å"When, alcohol related problems do occur, they are clearly linked with the modalities of drinking, and usually also with values attitudes, and norms about drinking†#. We are stuck knowing, thinking and feeling the way we do about alcohol because that is what has been driven into our minds. If our society could look outside the box, we could see the effects of tradition, family and culture that have totally transformed how alcohol is used and seen in other societies. Lessons can be learned from the experiences of other countries but it would take a long time to effect them into our society and tradition. We have tried to educate our youth on the dangers of alcohol and problems associated with it. Through educational programs we have tried to teach them to stay away from this so-called drug, that we have enabled ourselves to label as dangerous. These programs such as D. A. R. E. have failed in every attempt because the information that is taught often contradicts beliefs and conduct seen everyday by these children in our society. Understanding that we have failed as a society in how we treat alcohol, leaves no question that we should look to evidence from other cultures and humble ourselves that our existing argument on alcohol needs to end. â€Å"It is apparent that certain ways of thinking and acting in respect to alcohol, ways that are consistently associated with drinking problems, might fruitfully be rejected, while others; those that correlate with unproblematic drinking might well be fostered. â€Å"# Our attempts of labeling alcohol as a â€Å"dirty drug,† a substance to be despised and shunned should change to â€Å"choose or not to choose. † We must teach children the modern practices of moderation, respect for alcohol and that you do have a choice in what you do. Damaging social and personal consequences stemming from alcohol abuse are not completely related to the prevalence of alcohol consumption, we know that cultural, historical and social comparisons truly show that alcohol has many uses, both good and bad. However, cultures that have a predisposition for low rates of alcohol abuse are more comfortable about the consumption of alcohol, and the behaviors seen as a result from drinking. These responsible drinking habits are taught at a young age as well as teaching that alcohol is a controllable a force that can offer pleasure and positive social experiences through implementation of successful cultural controls on drinking. Knowing how our society in the U. S. views the usage of alcohol, I believe that we should seriously reflect on the practices of the above mentioned cultures, and formulate a drinking model for alcohol that suits our culture and traditions, that gives a positive perspective on alcohol. This model would allow us to improve our way of living, teaching responsibility and respect, qualities needed in every aspect of life. Notes 1. Heath, D. B. (1982). â€Å"Sociocultural Variants in Alcoholism,† Encyclopedic Handbook of Alcoholism. New York: Gardner Press: 38 2. Heath, 429 3. Varley, C. (1994). Life Issues-Alcoholism. New York: Marshal Cavendish. 4. Rorabaugh, W. J. (1979). The Alcoholic Republic: An American Tradition. New York: Oxford University Press: 26 5. Levine, H. G. (1995). â€Å"The Good Creature of God and the Demon Rum,† International Handbook on Alcohol and Culture. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press: 115 6. Heath, 121 7. Heath, 436. Bibliography Claypool, J. (1981). Alcohol and You. New York: Franklin Watts- An Impact Book. Dolmetsch, P, and Mauricette, G. (Ed). (1987). Teens Talk About Alcohol and Alcoholism. New York: Dolphin Book. Heath, D. B. (1982). â€Å"Sociocultural Variants in Alcoholism,† Encyclopedic Handbook of Alcoholism. New York: Gardner Press. Hornik, E. L. (1974). You and your Alcoholic Parent. New York: Association Press. Levine, H. G. (1995). â€Å"The Good Creature of God and the Demon Rum,† International Handbook on Alcohol and Culture. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Rorabaugh, W. J. (1979). The Alcoholic Republic: An American Tradition. New York: Oxford University Press. Varley, C. (1994). Life Issues-Alcoholism. New York: Marshal Cavendish.

Essay on Eating Locally

Why We Should Eat Locally It isn’t any secret that the United States is in a state of relatively bad health, but most Americans aren’t entirely aware of the overall global and personal impact of the way we eat. By corporatizing the distribution of almost all of our food resources, we are increasingly contributing to global destruction with every food item we purchase. Barbara Kingsolver, American author and expert in biology, asserts, â€Å"Each food item in a typical U. S. meal has traveled an average of 1,500 miles. If every U. S. itizen ate just one meal a week composed of locally and organically raised meats and produce, we would reduce our country's oil consumption by over 1. 1 million barrels of oil every week. † The impact of our eating habits is astounding. The way we distribute food lends itself to the destruction of our planet and resources, the widening gap between the rich and poor, uncertainty about food quality, and most importantly the health of ou r citizens. By consuming more local foods, we can stimulate our communities, conserve energy and achieve better health for our country as a whole.The safety of what we eat is the number one concern among those who worry about factory-produced food. In order to produce as much product as possible, factory animals are pumped full of hormones and antibiotics. Likewise, our fruits and vegetables are genetically modified and sprayed with insecticides. These chemicals have detrimental effects on our health and are ruining our food for no reason other than corporate profit. The only way to avoid our exposure to these things is to either buy organic food or buy it locally. Organic foods are the most rapidly growing segment of our food industry, doubling in growth every few years (Ikerd).Unfortunately, Organic food from supermarkets is just another big business which contributes to eliminating earth resources and often misleads consumers with its claims. If more people began eating locally, we would decrease the resources we use for transportation and completely eliminate our uncertainty about where our food comes from and what’s in it. Another reason to support local farms is that it would stimulate local economies and increase our personal responsibility in the world. Instead of shipping our jobs off to corporate farms, we could create jobs in our own ackyard. Not only would we be able to create jobs, but overall sustainability in our local communities. Today, farmers only get about 20% of the money for their products because the rest is spent on transportation and packaging (Muren). If we ate locally, farmers would begin to earn the true value of their products and eliminate the need for a middle man. John Ikerd, professor of Agriculture at the University of Missouri, argues that people who buy their food from local farms are also more likely to shop locally for other items, further stimulating local economy.Like all changes, the industrialization of our food came about one farmer at a time. In the same way, the road to change begins with each individual consumer (Ikerd). If Americans begin purchasing their fruits, vegetables, meat and dairy products from local farms, our country can move toward better overall health, economic sustainability, and decrease our contribution to the destruction of the planet. If we want to begin solving the biggest problems in our society, a good way to start would be to focus on and perfect how we obtain of one of our most basic needs, food.

Teaching Self-Care for counselors through Mindfulness Practices Essay

Teaching Self-Care for counselors through Mindfulness Practices - Essay Example The aim of the research is to analyze and evaluate most popular mindfulness practices and their application in teaching self-care. The practical significance is that counseling work calls for a primary focus on reality external to oneself, and mindfulness practices allow individuals to relief stress and emotional burden. The theoretical significant is a deep analysis of the current methods and practices used in teaching self-care for counselors. The study consists of three parts. The main questions addressed in the study are: What is the importance of mindfulness practices for counselors" what methods can be used in self-care practices What are the benefits of mindfulness practices approach The study is based on analytical assessment tools. Work is a natural part of living, and the issues it raises are important parts of a character. Work emphasizes the here-and-now and those aspects of oneself that have real-world utility. One is employed by a work organization because of one's ability or presumed ability to accomplish some productive goals. Work therefore emphasizes the rational aspects of people and problem solving, even though the affective side may arise from time to time (more so in some occupations than in others) in the attempt to meet those goals. Anxiety, stress, burnout and depression are the main disorders typical for counselors. Counselors who, through poor selection or unanticipated work dysfunctions, become marginal to the major or primary purposes of the organization, are removed, assisted to change, or kept on, although unproductive, in recognition of past accomplishments and contributions or in fulfillment of an actual or psychological contract that promises continuous employment. Critics (Lewis et al 2003) underline that teaching self-care for counselors should be based on mindfulness practices which help to overcome anxiety, stress and prevent emotional and psychological disorders. Anxiety, according to Snyder and Lopez 2002), has been experienced persistently throughout history, reflecting "an inevitable part of the human condition" (p. 134). As with its occurrence in other contexts, anxiety concerning one's work can be transient and situational (e.g., the type encountered in a job interview), or it can be almost incapacitating, preventing one from getting to the workplace or completing a workday without major disruptions (Brown, 1996). The dread may be so great that the client avoids work altogether. In between are multiple variations. A commonly shared theme, however, is the experience of dysphoric affect and the general tendency to avoid situations engendering the anxious feelings. he "stressful events" approach to anxiety, although productive, has incre asingly been questioned for its failure to identify differential responses to the same stressor. Concerning its effect on performance situations, however, anxiety, whether of a state or trait nature, generally serves to lessen the quality of the performance (Brown, 1996). Perceived psychological stress appears to lower satisfaction with work. Apparently, men and women do not differ per se in the experience of occupational stress, although the conditions that are more likely

Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4500 words

Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease - Essay Example The superficial layer of the esophagus is known as adventitia. The adventitia attaches the esophagus to surrounding structures. The esophagus secretes mucus and transports food into the stomach but it does not produce digestive enzymes. The stomach contents can reflux (back up) into the inferior portion of the esophagus when the lower esophageal sphincter fails to close adequately after food has entered the stomach; the condition which is known as gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). In GERD, the basal layer of of the epithelium is is thickened, and the papillae of the lamina propria are elongated and extend toward the surface. Abnormalities of the lower esophageal sphincter, Hiatus hernia, Delayed esophageal clearance, Gastric contents, Defective gastric emptying, Increased intra-abdominal pressure, and Dietary and environmental factors may be the factors involved in GERD. Clinically, GERD may be diagnosed by radiographic examinations using dyes, endoscopy, and esophageal pH-metr y. PPI trial is also an accepted method of first line diagnostic test. Treatment involves both non-pharmacological treatment measures as well as pharmacotherapy. Non-pharmacological treatment include avoidance of foods and medications that exacerbate GERD, smoking secession, weight reduction, taking a small meal at a time, avoidance of alcohol and elevation of the head of the bed. Drugs for treating GERD include H2 receptor antagonists like cimetidine, ranitidine, famotidine or nizatidine. Proton pump inhibitors such as omeprazole, pantoprazole, lansoprazole and rebeprazole are found to be very effective to reduce acid reflux and hence inflammation. H2 blockers were found to heal ulcers and erosions but the typical reflux changes of the squamous epithelium of the esophageal mucosa are not recovered. Studies confirmed that PPIs not only heal ulcers and erosions but also cures basal cell hyperplasia and elongation of the papillae. The percentage of normal epithelium were also reported to increase significantly after PPI administration in patients with GERD. Two commonly employed treatment alternatives for GERD are antirefluctive surgery and Endoscopic Treatments. Surgery is preferred only when the patient fails to respond to pharmacological treatment, when the patient prefers surgery, in those patients who have complications of GERD like barrett's esophagitis, or if the patient has atypical symptoms and reflux documented on 24-hour ambulatory pH monitoring. Several randomized controlled trials have confirmed that open fundoplication and medical treatment have similar long-term effects for GERD. Laparoscopic antireflux surgery is also reported to have similar outcomes to the open procedures. Endoscopic Treatments for GERD include plicating gastric folds methods (Endoscopic Gastroplication, ELGP method, thermal tissue remodeling /neurolysis method, and bulking injection method. These endoluminal treatments augment the reflux barrier. Section I: Organ system structure and Function. Explain the accepted normal healthy structure of parts and function of organ system; How it works The esophagus is a collapsible muscular tube, about 25 cm (10 in.) long that lies posterior to the trachea. The esophagus begins at the inferior end of the laryngopharynx and passes through the mediastinum anterior to vertebral column. Then it pierces the diaphragm through an opening called the

A thematic analysis of 4 interviews with lesbian prostitutes Essay

A thematic analysis of 4 interviews with lesbian prostitutes - Essay Example All of the women I spoke to were between the ages of 22 and 26; Margaret had been in the business the longest and was 26. Katie was 22, Lenore 23 and Irene was 24. I am not sure whether these were their real names or the names they go by when they go on a job. All for ladies were dressed well and no one would have noticed that they were prostitutes necessarily. They were very clean and well kept and they took their jobs seriously. All four had a clientele of men as well as women saying that it was better to have both "because you wont get paid enough just with women". Each woman had a different idea of this but essentially it was because of the money. My questions consisted of 20 questions that I asked each woman and then there were other questions for clarification (Ive listed questions at the end of this paper). As I went through the transcripts of these women I was struck by how casual and nonchalant they were about the business. I can see that because it is legal in the UK these women may not feel the constraints or the fears that some women would feel in other countries. None of them seemed to be upset with the questions I asked nor did they seem worried that someone would find out about them as we talked. I spent time getting to know each woman so she would feel comfortable talking with me. Each interview was unique and one of the women identified herself as bisexual, though she saw many more women clients than she saw men. Katie was 22 years old and started her career as a prostitute when she was eighteen. She started because she needed to pay for university and had to earn her rent. She was one of the most outspoken in the group. She saw her work as a normal job and she felt that people who understand this are better able to understand her. She had a great sense of humour about it all. Katie identifies her self as a lesbian and she is in a romantic relationship with a woman

The name of the organizational event, topic or company you choose for Research Paper

The name of the organizational event, topic or company you choose for this and Power Point - Research Paper Example It has managed to beat top companies like Apple and IBM after the organization restructuring. In addressing the organization change, the paper uses model and theories to strengthen the company’s organization change analysis. The sustainability of the company has been one of its central concerns since its establishment. Due to effective organization change, Samsung Group has become the largest brand in consumer electronics. The company is today a multinational conglomerate, with its headquarters in Seoul, South Korea and specifically in Samsung Town. Through the chairmanship of Lee Kun-Hee, Samsung Group managed implement a reform plan, which includes structural overhaul as well as personnel reshuffle. The organization change of the company involves efforts to eliminate any cases of corruption, poor leadership, quality improvement, increased productivity, and increased profitability among other objectives. Other than the personnel reshuffling and the structural overhaul, the company saw Lee Kun-Hee leave his position due to tax evasion changes as well as breach of trust. The organization change also led to the disappearance of the strategic planning office for the company (TRIBUNE NEWS SERVICES). This change contributed to great innovation and inventions in both computer and phone technologies. Like any other focused business organization, the organization changes in Samsung Group were meant to make the company survive, grow, and boost innovation abilities. The rapid change in the global business environment, changes in consumer preferences, and advancements in technology are some of the key motivators for organization change by Samsung. Changes in business environment and the world in general make it difficult to predict the future, due to the numerous opportunities as well as pitfalls that pass by every moment. Typically, organization change is part of an

Essay - 500-600 words Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

- 500-600 words - Essay Example Solving or at least alleviating this problem would also benefit the fraction of the population who would constitute the next generation of America and these are the children. In upholding the welfare of American children, it is not only the economic side that should be improved for their future. Their moral and social welfare are far more important than their financial welfare. In addition to these is their ability to survive and adapt in various kinds of conditions. To resolve a problem that involves children, the root of the problem should be traced first. This economic slump that America is facing and affects the lives of all of its citizens down to the youngest American can be traced to its moral values. Stripping off all hypocrisy and admitting that degradation of values is one of the causes of this financial predicament would make citizens realize that excessive spending, unrestrained buying, and discontent on what one already has caused America to fall into this self-made pit. To help American children would call for changes not in their surroundings but on the children. Education is important but textbooks and curriculums are not the only factors that should be taught and improved in schools and at home. Teaching children to be frugal and to maximize things that can be found at home instead of constantly buying new items would be a great start and the best way to improve the lives of American children. Furthermore, improving lives of American children through education would also need lessons on survival through improvisation and activities that would develop their adaptability in different kinds of conditions. This way, the children would be emotionally prepared and would be capable to find and invent ways if sudden changes would occur as results of the changing status of the state. As the head of the state, there is nothing wrong in improving the financial and social environment of the nation for the present population and the next

Consumer Society Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Consumer Society - Essay Example In general, society is distinguished by its characteristic modes of production and economic life. However, what is thought to distinguish the society is not solely a new mode of production, but a new social imperative - the changing distribution of economic and social resources. Since 1900s, consumers became conscious about high quality of products and services they received. Fordism was one of the main features of this period. It caused a technological advance in mass production and labour relations, production of low price commodities to the workers. In contrast, upper and middle classes needed luxury goods and high quality services which supported and 'reflected' their high social status. Following Marx's theory of class conflict, it is possible to say that class was defined by its modes of collective action, and sought to show how rights to productive resources, credentials, party membership, lineage, etc., could all be distinct bases for social closure in the struggle for distributive advantage. Similar to other periods of production and social development, race was a silent factor which was often neglected by economists who analyzed distribution of economic and social resources in terms of class location of individuals. During this period of time, com modification was one of the main processes which marked the new era in consumption. Many objects and signs were turned into commodities available for consumers (Dant 1999). The 1920s-1930s marked a new and one of the most important eras in production and consumption modes. After a short postwar recession, the economy grew exceedingly. Unemployment dropped as low as 3 percent, prices stayed steady, and gross national product increased by nearly 30 million in seven years. Some of this prosperity was due to technological advancements such as electricity. New systems for distributing goods also affected the US economy; perhaps the most influential producer of a good economy was advertising. The culture of the 1920s-1930s associated with consumerism and money-oriented behavior. Automobiles, another reason for the boom of the 1920s, caused a need for assemblers, which increased the job market, and by 1930 the automobile industry made up for about 9 percent of all wages. Because of this new found freedom people were able to drive to the chain department stores that perhaps were not convenient before (Weintraub 1958). The 1920s could be described as the "coming of age". Through technology, arts, sport and science American culture was shaped in a 10-year period. Faster music, looser morals, and skimpy dress all contributed to the end of our nation's adolescence. However there was one factor that would later define the 1920s: prohibition. Seemingly, with a "coming of age" also came intelligence. As one faction of society pushed for looser morale, another group was right behind them leading the charge against social evils. The main objective of these groups was to do away with social evil by putting an end to its source: alcohol. Prohibition contributed to the prosperity of the 1920s by leading UK on a dry path to overall well being, reducing alcohol production, plummeting alcohol consumption, and promoting health. In order for one thing to be considered good, something else have to be considered bad. This contrast explains how beauty exists because there is misery in the world, and it exists exclusi vely in the human mind. Personal

E-strategy for Stock Brokerage Service in Hong Kong Thesis Proposal

E-strategy for Stock Brokerage Service in Hong Kong - Thesis Proposal Example The proposed research analyses the e-strategies adopted by the brokerage companies in Hong Kong. Through the research, we will find out the gaps in the e-brokerage practices and will try to get insight about the e-strategies. The study will also provide practical suggestion in order to undertake betterment in the strategies adopted for e-brokerage, so that they can be helpful in further growth or taking corrective measures. The advent of the online trading has transfigured the trading industry all over the world including the online brokerage industry in Hong Kong. Last decade has seen a significant increase in the number financial institutions and brokers offering online trading in Hong Kong. These brokers offer both online and traditional brokerage services (Piotroski & Roulstone, 2004). Almost all of the companies listed at the Hong Kong Stock Exchange offer some form of internet based securities. Last few years have seen significant increase in the number of online traders. The number of online traders increases at the rate of 5% per annum. (Industry Overview) In 2003 the exchange launched AMS/3; the average daily turnover of the online brokers in Hong Kong has increased around 1.9% to around 13.0%. The Hong Kong exchange does not require any additional registration and licensing requirements for a company to conduct securities and commodities dealing through the Internet (Industry Overview). Reasons for the study: By reviewing the importance and uses of e-strategy of brokerage services and its literature, we will find out that e-brokerage is such effective tool which provide help to an ordinary person in undertaking trade with ease. On the other end it is also benefitting the trading companies in several ways. The data provided by the companies help in undertaking useful interpretation and comparison of the financial statements. The researcher is interested in evaluating every aspect of the e-strategy of brokerage. It is important for the brokerage companies to protect the interest of all parties and see that the firm grows profitably. Therefore, how far the management and investors can utilize the e-brokerage services to extract and present more and more information, needs to be evaluated. The purpose of this research is to analyze and identify that how the financial ratios are helpful in decision-making process of financial executives in the firm. Basically literature shows that e-strategy is a the tool through which investors are taking/making certain decisions about company's performance, liquidity profitability and its effectiveness but unless they do not compare it with the past performance of the same firm or other competitors or industry, they may not be able to extract the reasonable and useful information and analysis. So the main aim of the study is to evaluate whether the e-strategy is useful in providing the information helpful in predicting the performance of the firm. In the process of research, developing the views from the existing literature on e-strategy of brokerage will be our starting point and finally we will be able to present the gaps found in the e-brokerage practices of the companies in Hong Kong and suggest the steps for betterment. Objectives: The objectives of the present study would be as follows: To review extant conceptual models

The US Congress Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The US Congress - Essay Example Senator Spector's website contained the same constituency topics; including flags, touring DC, appointments to military academies and internships; and actually had one more than Lott - how to get grants. His home page though was a bit more crowded and the major topic buttons were not as easily recognizable as Lott's; to his benefit, though, he had an email signup form on the front page and his office locations and phone numbers. Unlike Lott's page though, Spector had no search bar. The information on Wicker's home page was sparse at best. His navigation buttons were difficult to read and small which could make it very difficult for an older person. Also his main topic buttons had no drop down menus and instead of grouping categories together he too many individual tabs. He had no search bar. Lastly, Lewis' webpage was set up nicely. His category buttons were easy to locate, although they did not have drop down menus. He did, however, have two search bars: one for general searches and a Bill search which was innovative. He did not have a state map as did the two senators. All four of the congressman had a great deal of partisan information within their websites, although some were more blatant than others. Lewis' home page was mainly taken up with information on Bills, projects or acts he was personally involved with. However, his latest news was dated January 18 which made me wonder what he had been doing for three months. Wicker's home page dedicated almost half of the home page to hurricane relief aid. The lower portion had current news release links to his sponsored bills as well as three columns he pens. Spector's latest news was dated April 6th so information is being updated fairly frequently and like the others his news all dealt with legislations or committees is was actively working on. He did have an article, however, about bipartisan cooperation in oil and gas price discussions. Lastly, Lott's press release section was less cluttered with only one release displayed and a button to see more. He also had a link to his weekly radio address w hich according to the website he has been doing a weekly address since 1973. Of the four web pages Lott had the least partisan information portrayed on the main page. All four Congressmen have lengthy biographies posted on their websites explaining in detail the professional lives as well as their background and family information. Wicker has an extensive photo gallery. Lewis has the shortest biography of the four congressmen. One thing I did not like is the first paragraph spoke about his personal insurance business; ever the salesman I suppose. His photo gallery was set up nicely with different headings to select from which made it very neatly organized. Lott's biography was nicely laid out with his main headings labeled. This allows the readers to scan through for the particular area they are seeking. Lott only had one photo, his official Senate photo. Spector's biography was also nicely laid out clear and concise with nice visual representations. Spector also had no photo gallery which made me question if it was a Senate mandated, a Senate unofficial mandate or just a coincidence. Of the total appearance of the websites, by far, the most appealing was that of Lott. He had much better use of space. The pages did not seem as cluttered as that of Wicker and Lewis. Spector's page was laid out well too,

Micro Small and Medium Enterprise Essay Example for Free

Micro Small and Medium Enterprise Essay Some of these hurdles comprise of inefficacy of SMEs to access continued development and success. Lack of Finance: One of the crucial factors that prompts in the success or failure of enterprise is technology. The best use of technology no doubt enables enterprise in reducing cost of production, maintain consistency in quality, improve productivity and finally develop the competitiveness of the enterprise. Lack of technology: One of the crucial factors that prompts in the success or failure of enterprise is technology. The best use of technology no doubt enables enterprise in reducing cost of production, maintain consistency in quality, improve productivity and finally develop the competitiveness of the enterprise. Lack of Knowledge: Â  Lack of knowledge and information about the various schemes announced by the government. Lackof Marketing Assistance: One of the chief problems that they do not have marketing expertise or not in a position to hire someone who can jazz up their sales. Paucity of marketing support and limitation of the resources is a characteristic of all SMEs. In this framework the discussion focuses on SMEs typical traits and how these effect upon marketing characteristics within SMEs. When it comes to marketing of products or services internationally, any small or medium company is always constrained by its scarcity of budgets, which in turn limits its growth. A B2B marketplace is a platform where sellers can list thei businesses free of cost and leverage the power of internet. Not only they solve companies problem of reach to the buyers worldwide, the online marketplace also support their communication needs and help them display an array of products. Lack of right staff: Last but not the least SMEs are largely dependent on their staffs, if you fail in the recruitment process, you fail indeed. SMEs must hire right employees, who give their best and support the enterprise through their performances Lack of planning: Another problem that is mainly faced by SME sector is the proper division of time, which is usually the outcome of improper planning and strategy. Moreover, if you are in debt then you have to be careful from your bankers and suppliers and off course your employees who will be on your nerves on the salary day

Reflecting And Refracting Telescopes

Reflecting And Refracting Telescopes The telescopes invention is often pegged in 1608 with the award of a patent to Lippershey by the States-General, the name for parliament in the Netherlands. However, an Englishman, Thomas Harriott constructed an early, low-power version of the telescope and used it in August 1609 to observe the Moon, at the same time when Galileo presented a similar small instrument to the Venetian Senate. Galileo undertook his own serious observations in October or November of that same year with a larger telescope. Hans Lippershey , a Dutch eyeglass manufacturer,is most often associated with the invention of the telescope. Lippershey was awarded a patent for his device in October 1608 by the parliament in the Netherlands.Credit for the invention of the telescope is also extended to Jacob Metius, a Dutch optician, though he was reluctant to allow the Dutch parliament to review his patent claim and even prohibited anyone from seeing his device. Despite his reluctance, Metius was eventually awarded a small sum from parliament, also in 1608, when he applied for a patent on his device a few weeks after Lippershey.However, the Dutch parliament only allowed Lippershey to construct a binocular version of his telescope. So, Lippershey is also the inventor of the binocular! ( note: Galileo Galilei did not invent the telescope!) TELESCOPE DIMENSIONS Aperture: The diameter of the primary mirror or lens. This determines the limiting magnitude and the angular resolution. Focal Length: The length it takes the light to converge to a single point. A smaller focal length increases magnification and brightness, whereas a longer focal length has the opposite effect. This makes a difference only for extended objects, not stars. Magnifying Power: (focal length of eyepiece)/(focal length of telescope). F/Ratio: (focal length of telescope)/aperture. A ratio of 8 is written f/8. Focal Plane: The plane perpendicular to the point of convergence. PARAMETERS OF TELESCOPE The utility of a telescope depends on its ability to collect large quantities of light and to resolve fine details. The brightness of an image is proportional to the area of the light-gathering element, which is proportional to the square of that elements aperture. The brightness also depends on the area over which the image is spread. This area is inversely proportional to the square of the focal length (f) of the lens. The brightness of the image therefore depends on the square of the f/ratio, just as in an ordinary camera. The resolving power of a telescope depends on the diameter of the aperture and the wavelength observed; the larger the diameter, the smaller the detail that can be resolved. TYPES OF TELESCOPES We will be primarily concerned with optical telescopes which have two basic subdivisions: Refracting Telescopes: Refraction works on the principle that light has different bending properties in different media (glass,water, air, etc.). Refracting Telescopes use a glass lens to cause the convergence of the light. Reflecting Telescopes: Reflecting telescopes use mirrors (concave or convex) to direct incoming light to converge to a point. REFRACTING TELESCOPES Small refracting telescopes are used in binoculars, cameras, gunsights, galvanometers, periscopes, surveying instruments, rangefinders, astronomical telescopes, and a great variety of other devices. Parallel or nearly parallel light from the distant object enters from the left, and the objective lens forms an inverted image of it . The inverted image is viewed with the aid of a second lens, called the eyepiece. The eyepiece is adjusted (focused) to form a parallel bundle of rays so that the image of the object may be viewed by the eye without strain. The objective lens is typically compound; that is, it is made up of two or more pieces of glass, of different types, designed to correct for aberrations such as chromatic aberration. To construct a visual refractor, a lens is placed beyond the images formed by the objective and viewed with the eye. To construct a photographic refractor or simply a camera, a photographic plate is placed at the position of the image. Simplified optical diagram of a refracting telescope. Refracting optical system used to photograph a star field. Generally, refracting telescopes are used in applications where great magnification is required, namely, in planetary studies and in astrometry, the measurement of star positions and motions. However, this practice is changing, and the traditional roles of refractors are being carried out effectively by a few reflecting telescopes, in part because of effective limitations on the size of refracting telescopes. A refractor lens must be relatively thin to avoid excessive absorption of light in the glass. On the other hand,the lens can be supported only around its edge and thus is subject to sagging distortions that change as the telescope is pointed from the horizon to the zenith; thus its thickness must be great enough to give it mechanical rigidity. An effective compromise between these two demands is extremely difficult, making larger refractors unfeasible. The largest refracting telescope is the 1-m (40-in.) telescope-built over a century ago-at Yerkes Observatory. This size is about the limit for optical glass lenses. REFLECTING TELESCOPES The principal optical element, or objective, of a reflecting telescope is a mirror. The mirror forms an image of a celestial object (Fig. 3) which is then examined with an eyepiece, photographed, or studied in some other manner. Viewing a star with a reflecting telescope. In this configuration, the observer may block the mirror unless it is a very large telescope. Reflecting telescopes generally do not suffer from the size limitations of refracting telescopes. The mirrors in these telescopes can be as thick as necessary and can be supported by mechanisms that prevent sagging and thus inhibit excessive distortion. In addition, mirror materials having vanishingly small expansion coefficients, together with ribbing techniques that allow rapid equalization of thermal gradients in a mirror, have eliminated the major thermal problems plaguing telescope mirrors. Some advanced reflecting telescopes use segmented mirrors, composed of many separate pieces. By using a second mirror (and even a third one, in some telescopes), the optical path in a reflector can be folded back on itself, permitting a long focal length to be attained with an instrument housed in a short tube. A short tube can be held by a smaller mounting system and can be housed in a smaller dome than a long-tube refractor. DERIVATIONS IN TELESCOPE Two fundamentally different types of telescopes exist; both are designed to aid in viewing distant objects, such as the planets in our Solar System. The refracting telescope uses a combination of lenses to form an image, and the reflecting telescope uses a curved mirror and a lens.The lens combination shown in Figure is that of a refracting telescope. Like the compound microscope, this telescope has an objective and an eyepiece. The two lenses are arranged so that the objective forms a real, inverted image of a distant object very near the focal point of the eyepiece. Because the object is essentially at infinity, this point at which I 1 forms is the focal point of the objective. The eyepiece then forms, at I 2, an enlarged, inverted image of the image at I 1. In order to provide the largest possible magnification, the image distance for the eyepiece is infinite. This means that the light rays exit the eyepiece lens parallel to the principal axis, and the image of the objective lens must form at the focal point of the eyepiece. Hence, the two lenses are separated by a distance fo + fe , which corresponds to the length of the telescope tube. The angular magnification of the telescope is given by à °Ã‚ Ã…“ ½/à °Ã‚ Ã…“ ½o, where à °Ã‚ Ã…“ ½o is the angle subtended by the object at the objective and à °Ã‚ Ã…“ ½ is the angle subtended by the final image at the viewers eye. Consider Figure, in which the object is a very great distance to the left of the figure. The angle à °Ã‚ Ã…“ ½o (to the left of the objective) subtended by the object at the objective is the same as the angle (to the right of the objective) subtended by the first image at the objective. Thus, tan à °Ã‚ Ã…“ ½o= à °Ã‚ Ã…“ ½o= -h/f o where the negative sign indicates that the image is inverted. The angle à °Ã‚ Ã…“ ½ subtended by the final image at the eye is the same as the angle that a ray coming from the tip of I1 and traveling parallel to the principal axis makes with the principal axis after it passes through the lens. Thus, tan à °Ã‚ Ã…“ ½=à °Ã‚ Ã…“ ½=h/fe We have not used a negative sign in this equation because the final image is not inverted; the object creating this final image I2 is I1, and both it and I2 point in the same direction. Hence, the angular magnification of the telescope can be expressed as m= à °Ã‚ Ã…“ ½/à °Ã‚ Ã…“ ½o=h/fe /-h/fo=-fo/fe and we see that the angular magnification of a telescope equals the ratio of the objective focal length to the eyepiece focal length. The negative sign indicates that the image is inverted.When we look through a telescope at such relatively nearby objects as the Moon and the planets, magnification is important. However, individual stars in our galaxy are so far away that they always appear as small points of light no matter how great the magnification. A large research telescope that is used to study very distant objects must have a great diameter to gather as much light as possible. It is difficult and expensive to manufacture large lenses for refracting telescopes. Another difficulty with large lenses is that their weight leads to sagging, which is an additional source of aberration. These problems can be partially overcome by replacing the objective with a concave mirror, which results in a reflecting telescope. Because light is reflected from the mirror and does not pass through a lens, the mirror can have rigid supports on the back side. Such supports eliminate the problem of sagging. Figure shows the design for a typical reflecting telescope. Incoming light rays pass down the barrel of the telescope and are reflected by a parabolic mirror at the base. These rays converge toward point A in the figure, where an image would be formed. However, before this image is formed, a small, flat mirror M reflects the light toward an opening in the side of the tube that passes into an eyepiece. This particular design is said to have a Newtonian focus because Newton developed it. Above figure shows such a telescope. Note that in the reflecting telescope the light never passes through glass (except through the small eyepiece). As a result, problems associated with chromatic aberration are virtually eliminated. The reflecting telescope can be made even shorter by orienting the flat mirror so that it reflects the light back toward the objective mirror and the light enters an eyepiece in a hole in the middle of the mirror. LIMITATIONS For many applications, the Earths atmosphere limits the effectiveness of larger telescopes. The most obvious deleterious effect is image scintillation and motion, collectively known as poor seeing. Atmospheric turbulence produces an extremely rapid motion of the image resulting in a smearing. On the very best nights at ideal observing sites, the image of a star will be spread out over a 0.25-arcsecond seeing disk; on an average night, the seeing disk may be between 0.5 and 2.0 arcseconds. It has been demonstrated that most of the air currents that cause poor seeing occur within the observatory buildings themselves. Substantial improvements in seeing have been achieved by modern design of observatory structures. The upper atmosphere glows faintly because of the constant influx of charged particles from the Sun. This airglow adds a background exposure or fog to photographic plates that depends on the length of the exposure and the speed (f/ratio) of the telescope. The combination of the finite size of the seeing disk of stars and the presence of airglow limits the telescopes ability to see faint objects. One solution is placing a large telescope in orbit above the atmosphere. In practice, the effects of air and light pollution outweigh those of airglow at most observatories in the United States.

Special Admissions High Schools in New York City: Unequal Opportunites for Everyone :: Free Essays Online

Special Admissions High Schools in New York City: Unequal Opportunites for Everyone As a teenager growing up in New York City a major part of your life is the high school that you attend. New York City is filled with high schools, public, private, and parochial. Within the public school system in addition to "regular" public schools there are also special admission and magnet schools. Although these schools are all technically part of the same system, there are very great differences and disparities between them. As a student at a special admissions public school I was very aware of the problems that existed at my school, but also took for granted the advantages my school had over "regular" public schools. Our ceiling was falling down, we had no windows or ventilation, and we had teachers that didn't teach, but we also had a computer network, beautiful grand pianos, small classes, a Jazz Chorus that took a trip to Europe, AP courses, and a ridiculous number of graduates attending Ivy League universities. Some of the "regular" public schools might have had windows, but that was really the only advantage, after that we had them beat by quite a lot. I grew up across the street from two high schools. One of them, Fiorello Laguardia High School, is a special admissions public school for students who are gifted in the performing or visual arts. The student population at Laguardia is relatively diverse with students of all races attending, although the majority of the students, as at all of the NYC special admissions high schools, is white and Asian. The other high school, Martin Luther King jr. High School is a "regular" public high school. The population is almost entirely African American and Hispanic with a very small minority of Asian students. In Manhattan, as in many areas of New York City, where one attends high school has little to do with where one lives. Almost everyone takes some combination of busses and/or subways every morning and afternoon. Because of this, the problems cannot really be blamed on districts. The disparities between schools has much more to do with who attends the school than where the school is located and the income of the population of that area. Technically, according to Marty Schwartzfarb, an educator in the New York City Public school system, all of the high schools run by the New York City board of education are supposed to be receiving exactly the same amount of money per student.

life of pi :: essays research papers

Life of Pi, written by Yann Martel is one of Canada"s most acclaimed books. It tells the story of sixteen-year-old Pi Patel"s journey while he discovers religion and his own determination and strength. This book is highly recommended for many reasons including the insightful views expressed on religion and life, the interesting facts on zoology, and the author"s unique talent in making something that at first glance seemed totally unrealistic become reality – humour inserted along the way! First of all, it is obvious that Pi Patel learns to have a very open mind when it comes to religion as he has embraced three of them, resulting in a unique Hindu-Christian-Muslim boy. His interesting views on the different religions lead the readers to broaden their horizons and have an open mind to different religions. His analogies were also quite humorous, for example, when comparing the crucifixion of Jesus Christ to his father feeding him to the lions because the latter killed two llam as, a black buck, a camel, painted storks, grey herons, and 'who"s to say for sure who snacked on our golden agouti?'. In addition, Pi Patel"s journey helped him have a great view on life and its value, allowing him to give many anecdotes that make the reader stop and think. For example: 'I have nothing to say of my working life, only that a tie is a noose, and inverted though it is, it will hang a man nonetheless if he"s not careful.' Secondly, this book is packed with zoological information including mating, hunting, and sleeping habits of a variety of animals from hippopotamuses to 'meerkats' (small African carnivorous burrowing mammals). Also, it includes many circus trainer tactics for lions and tigers, such as using foreign surroundings, having an erect posture, a calm demeanour, a steady gaze, a fearless step forward, a strange roar, etc. Also, Pi Patel"s very original view on how animals are indeed happy in a zoo was very enlightening for anyone who has ever felt sorry for the entrapped animals, feeling that the latter were not 'free'. According to this boy, animals in the wild are driven by necessity in an environment where the supply of fear is high and the supply of food is low, whereas the environment in a zoo is quite contrary. Also, animals are quite territorial (no matter what the territory is) and they protect it, not because they are prisoner of it, but because they are landholder of it. life of pi :: essays research papers Life of Pi, written by Yann Martel is one of Canada"s most acclaimed books. It tells the story of sixteen-year-old Pi Patel"s journey while he discovers religion and his own determination and strength. This book is highly recommended for many reasons including the insightful views expressed on religion and life, the interesting facts on zoology, and the author"s unique talent in making something that at first glance seemed totally unrealistic become reality – humour inserted along the way! First of all, it is obvious that Pi Patel learns to have a very open mind when it comes to religion as he has embraced three of them, resulting in a unique Hindu-Christian-Muslim boy. His interesting views on the different religions lead the readers to broaden their horizons and have an open mind to different religions. His analogies were also quite humorous, for example, when comparing the crucifixion of Jesus Christ to his father feeding him to the lions because the latter killed two llam as, a black buck, a camel, painted storks, grey herons, and 'who"s to say for sure who snacked on our golden agouti?'. In addition, Pi Patel"s journey helped him have a great view on life and its value, allowing him to give many anecdotes that make the reader stop and think. For example: 'I have nothing to say of my working life, only that a tie is a noose, and inverted though it is, it will hang a man nonetheless if he"s not careful.' Secondly, this book is packed with zoological information including mating, hunting, and sleeping habits of a variety of animals from hippopotamuses to 'meerkats' (small African carnivorous burrowing mammals). Also, it includes many circus trainer tactics for lions and tigers, such as using foreign surroundings, having an erect posture, a calm demeanour, a steady gaze, a fearless step forward, a strange roar, etc. Also, Pi Patel"s very original view on how animals are indeed happy in a zoo was very enlightening for anyone who has ever felt sorry for the entrapped animals, feeling that the latter were not 'free'. According to this boy, animals in the wild are driven by necessity in an environment where the supply of fear is high and the supply of food is low, whereas the environment in a zoo is quite contrary. Also, animals are quite territorial (no matter what the territory is) and they protect it, not because they are prisoner of it, but because they are landholder of it.

Dissociative Identity Disorder Essays -- Biology Essays Research Paper

Dissociative Identity Disorder, commonly known as Multiple Personality Disorder, is estimated to afflict at least a tenth of the American population. Patients with this disorder suffer from constant memory loss due to the presence of two or more other personalities that "take over" the patient's consciousness at random times of the day. This switching of personalities may last for a couple minutes, a couple hours, to up to several weeks at a time (1). In the past 30 years, the prevalence of Dissociative Identity Disorder has sky rocketed. The term dissociation refers to the disruption of one or more agents that constitutes "consciousness", such the formation of memories, making sense of them and maintaining a sense of identity (1). Dissociation results from forces beyond the patient's control. Proponents of Dissociative Identity Disorder believe memory loss occurs because the patient's consciousness is taken over by alter personalities believed to be formed during childhood (2). Personalities are usually found to be extremely different from the personality of the patient. The patient is usually shy, introverted and insecure, whereas some of her personalities may be flirtatious, outgoing, confident; and yet others may have issues surrounding anger management. Personalities may be older than the age of the patient, younger, or may have lived over a hundred years ago (1). Patients who suffer from DID are usually women who have had a history of sexual or extreme physical abuse, or who have experienced repeated trauma beyond her control (3). Because the child cannot physically escape the pain, her only option is to escape mentally: by dissociating. Dissociation is said to defend against pain by allowing the maltreatment to be ex... ...ts who come into therapy may have problems dealing with their emotions and self validation, and at the end of therapy, with the help and validation of therapists, discover multiple alter personalities. Does Dissociative Identity Disorder exist? Maybe. Yet, one who is unable to integrate various emotions and memories should have less than one personality, not multiple. References 1)Dissociative Identity Disorder: The Relevance of Behavior Analysis by Brady J. Phelps http://web3.infotrac.galegroup.com/ 2)Multiplying the Multiplicity in the British Journal of Psychology http://web3.infotrac.galegroup.com/ 3)The Treatment of Dissociative Identity Disorder With Neurotherapy and Group Self Exploration http://www.isnr.org/index.html 4)An Analytical Review of Dissociative Identity Disorder http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro02/web1/www.ycp.edu

Different Approaches To Management

Management was influenced by various disciplines like sociology, economics, political science, anthropology, psychology, and even literature. Due to such multidisciplinary influences, even authors like Harold Koontz (1961) referred to management as a ‘jungle’. Even then, differences exist in the classification of approaches. Although one of the ways to classify management approaches is from the analysis of John G.Hutchinson (1971), which considers the development of management from five different perspectives, the history of management can be broadly classified into three groups: (1) the classical approach, (2) the neo-classical approach, and (3) the modern approach. The classical approach has conventionally implied traditionally accepted views. This approach emphasizes organizational efficiency to increase organizational success. It believes in functional interrelationships, following of certain principles based on experience, a bureaucratic structure, and a reward-puni shment nexus.The classical school of thought developed in three different directions: the scientific management approach, the administrative approach, and the bureaucratic approach, which also falls under the administrative school of thought. The bureaucratic approach was pioneered by Weber (1920), the scientific management approach by Taylor (1903), and the concept of administrative theory by Fayol (1949). The neo-classical approach /Behavioral approach emphasized human relations, the importance of the person behind the machine, individual as well as group relationships, and social aspects.This approach was pioneered by Mayo and his associates (1933). It was further extended to the behavioral sciences approach, pioneered by Abraham Maslow (1968, 1971), Chris Argyris (1957), Douglas McGregor (1960), and Rensis Likert (1961). The quantitative approach (which developed during World War II and believes in economic effectiveness to solve business problems) and the contingency approach ( which discards the concept of universality and determines managerial decisions by considering situational factors) also form a part of the neo-classical approach.Modern management thought combines concepts of the classical school with social and natural sciences. It basically emerged from systems analysis. Even though most discussions on the evolution of management thought start with the classical approach, a brief acknowledgement of the contributions of the pre-classical theorists is useful to appreciate the process of development in management thought. A list of the contributions by pre-classical theorists has been provided in Table 1. 1. Table 1. 1 Contributions of Pre-classical Theorists Contributor Pioneering ideas Robert Owen (1771–1858)He is considered to be a pioneer of the human resource management process. He advocated the necessity of concern for the welfare of workers. Charles Babbage (1792–1871) As an inventor and a management scientist, he built the pract ical mechanical calculator, which is considered to be the basis of the modern computer. He also advocated the idea of specialization of mental work and suggested the necessity of profit sharing. Andrew Ure and Charles Duplin (1778–1857) They emphasized the necessity of management education, which further paved the way to professionalize management functions.Henry Robinson Towne (1844–1924) He emphasized the significance of skills in running a business. Reviewing the contributions of the pre-classical theorists, it is clear that their focus was more on developing some specific techniques to solve some identified problems. Due to their obvious technical background, they could not think of management as a separate field. By and large, they integrated management with their respective areas of specialization. Andrew Ure, Charles Duplin, and Henry Robinson Towne largely laid the foundation of management theory, which has ultimately shaped modern management thought.Classical School of Thought This school of thought is divided into two approaches—the scientific school and the administrative school. The theorists of this school laid down the foundation of managing an organization in accordance with certain principles. In Table 1. 2, the contributions of each theorist have been highlighted. Scientific management Scientific management is a classical approach that emphasizes the Scientific study of work methods to improve efficiency of workers. Among all the contributors to this school of thought, the contribution of Taylor is thought to be the most important.Regarded as the father of Scientific management, Taylor developed specific principles for this field in 1911. He started his experiments with the concept of Scientific management in 1878 at Midvale Steel Co. During his days at Midvale, he saw that employees were ‘soldiering’, that is, deliberately working at a pace slower than one's capabilities. He concluded that workers indulged in ‘soldiering’ primarily for three reasons: (1) fear of losing their jobs if they increase their output, (2) faulty wage systems, and (3) outdated methods of working. Table 1. 2 Contributions of Classical Theorists Scientific managementFrederick W. Taylor (1856–1915) Development of Scientific management Frank B. and Lillian M. Gilbreth (1868–1972) Time and motion studies Henry L. Gantt (1861–1919) The Gantt chart Administrative theory Henri Fayol (1841–1925) General theory of management Max Weber (1864–1920) Rules of management For eliminating this problem, Taylor developed the principles of Scientific management, emphasizing five important issues: 1. Emphasize organized knowledge rather than rely on rule of thumb 2. Obtain harmony in group action 3. Achieve cooperation 4. Work for maximum output rather than restricted output 5.Develop the potential of the workers both for their self-development and organizational prosperity In essence, Taylor emphasized the following points to achieve organizational efficiency: Develop a Scientific way of performing jobs Train and develop the potential of the workers to perform the job Establish harmonious relations between management and workers In order to ensure that such objectives are achieved, Taylor suggested two important managerial practices: the piece-rate incentive system and time and motion study. The piece-rate incentive system rewards the worker who produces maximum output.Such an incentive system will motivate workers to work more to maximize their earnings. This system requires workers to perform at some pre-decided standard rate to earn their base wages. Standards are decided using time and motion study. If workers are able to produce more, then in addition to their base rate they get incentives on the number of excess units produced over and above the standard units. This serves the interest of workers as well as management—workers feel motivated to maxim ize their earnings, while management gets the benefit of increased productivity.Time and motion study, as already pointed out, facilitates the determination of the standard time required for performing a job. Time study helps in the determination of time required, duly defining the art of recording, analyzing, and synthesizing the time elements of each operation. Motion study, on the other hand, involves study of movements in doing a job in parts. It eliminates wasteful movements and retains only the necessary ones. Thus, it makes a job simple, easier, and better. Taylor developed the time and motion study concepts in association with Frank and Lillian Gilbreth.Like Taylor, Frank Gilbreth is also known as the father of motion study. Lillian Gilbreth conducted research on motion studies. Both of them explored ways of reducing fatigue. They had classified seventeen basic hand motions including search, select, position, and hold, which they called ‘therbligs’ (Gilbreth spe lled backward with ‘th’ treated as one letter). Their approach helps us to analyze the exact elements of a worker's hand movements. A simple modification of a brick-laying approach, following the Gilbreths’ studies, helped to increase hourly output from 120 bricks to 350.Henry Laurence Gantt also worked as a close associate of Taylor at Midvale and subsequently at Bethlehem Steel. His contributions to the Scientific management school of thought are the task and bonus system and a chart commonly known as the Gantt chart, developed in the years 1910–1915. As per his incentive plan, workers receive their day wages even when they do not perform their complete job. On the other hand, they get a bonus when they take less than the normal standard time to complete the work. It was further recommended that there be payment of bonus to foremen as well, based on the incremental performance of workers.The Gantt chart is used for production planning to compare actual a nd planned performances. It is a visual device for production control, indicating progress of production in terms of time rather than quantity. In fact, the programme evaluation and review technique (PERT) concept was subsequently developed based on the Gantt chart. In Chapter 7, the Gantt chart has been illustrated in detail. Some of the drawbacks of scientific management are: The basic principles of scientific management revolve around operations problems and do not focus on managerial issues, essential for managing an organization.That is why it is often said that it is more focused on engineering than on management. The assumptions of this theory about people in general are that they are rational and primarily driven by their desire to fulfill material gains. Only the economic and physical needs of people are emphasized, to the exclusion of their social needs. This theory also ignores the human desire for job satisfaction. Administrative theory Administrative theory, another par t of the classical school of thought, focuses on principles to coordinate the internal activities in an organization.General theory of management The French industrialist Fayol, through his pioneering work General and Industrial Management published in English in 1949, explained that satisfactory results can be achieved with scientific forecasting and proper methods of management. At the outset, Fayol classified the business operations of an organization into six activities and then outlined 14 principles of management. The six activities are: 1. Technical: It is concerned with production and manufacturing. 2. Commercial: It includes all activities related to buying, selling, and exchange. 3. Financial: It ensures optimal use of capital.4. Security: It ensures the protection of employees and property. 5. Accounting: It is concerned with costs, profits and liabilities, maintaining balance sheets, and compiling statistics. 6. Managerial: It is a functional approach to management and i s concerned with planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, and controlling. After detailing all these activities, Fayol primarily focused on the managerial activities and outlined 14 principles to achieve efficiency. These 14 principles are as follows: 1. Division of labor: If people are specialized at their work, they can perform their task better.This principle recommends grouping of people as per their area of specialization. The modern assembly-line concept is an outcome of division of labor. 2. Authority: Managers must have authority to get things done. Yet, formal authority alone may not help to compel obedience from subordinates; managers must have the expertise to exert personal authority. 3. Discipline: People working in an organization need to comply with rules and agreements that govern the organization. Without discipline, results cannot be achieved. Strong discipline and leadership are inter-connected and these can together create an environment of positive work c ulture.4. Unity of command: Members in an organization must receive instructions from only one person. Conflict will arise when one receives orders and instructions from multiple managers. Therefore, the reporting relationship of one subordinate should be with one superior. 5. Unity of direction: All operations in an organization need to be directed towards one objective. Without this, achievement of goals cannot be ensured. 6. Subordination of individual interest to the common good: The interests of an individual employee should not take precedence over the interests of the organization as a whole. 7.Remuneration: It should be fair to both employees and employers. 8. Centralization: Centralization reduces the role of the subordinates in decision making, while decentralization enhances it. Managers should retain responsibility through centralization but at the same time give their subordinates enough authority to do their jobs properly. 9. Hierarchy: There should be a line of author ity, illustrated in the form of an organization chart clearly showing the structure of authority from the top management to employees down the line. 10. Order: People and materials should be in the right place at the right time.Job allocation to people should be made in a way that suits them. 11. Equity: Managers should be fair to their subordinates. 12. Stability of staff: Employee turnover should be less to ensure efficiency of an organization. 13. Initiative: Subordinates should have the freedom to conceive new ideas and do their task, even though they may commit mistakes. 14. Esprit de corps: Team spirit should be promoted to develop a culture of unity in the organization. Use of verbal communication instead of formal written communication, wherever possible, may help in developing the team spirit in an organization.Bureaucratic theory The bureaucratic theory pioneered by Weber (1920), which falls under the administrative school of thought, emphasizes authority structures and de scription of an organization based on the authority relations. According to Weber, ‘a bureaucracy is highly structured, formalized, and impersonal organization’. In fact, he has advocated the necessity of a formal organization structure with set rules and regulations. The characteristics of a bureaucratic organization as described by Weber are shown in Table 1. 3.Bureaucracy is often misunderstood as being a web of red tape and too many rules. However, Weber's concept is intended to remove ambiguity, inefficiencies, and patronage. Criticism of the classical school of thought Behavioral theorists criticized the classical theorists on a number of grounds. First of all, management principles are not universally applicable in today's complex business situation. Some principles of Fayol are also contradictory, for example, the principle of specialization contradicts the principle of unity of command.Similarly, Weber's bureaucracy also takes away the individual's creativity a nd flexibility, and dissuades them from responding to a complex situation in a global environment. Further, classical theorists also ignored the important aspects of organizational behaviour. These theories do not deal with the problems of leadership, motivation, power, or informal relations. They also fail to consider the internal and external environmental forces affecting an organization. These stress the necessity of achieving productivity, more than anything else. Neo-classical School of ThoughtThis school of thought, which was a transitional phase, basically emphasized human relations. Table 1. 3 Characteristics of Bureaucratic Theory Characteristics Description Specialization of labor Jobs are broken down into routine, well-defined tasks so that members of the organization know what is expected from them and they can become competent enough to do a particular subset of tasks. Formal rules and procedures Written rules and procedures should specify the desired behaviors from me mbers of the organization, facilitate coordination, and ensure uniformity. ImpersonalityRules, procedures, and sanctions should be applied uniformly regardless of individuals. Well-defined hierarchy Multiple levels of positions must be designed carefully keeping in mind the reporting relationships among levels. This should provide for supervision, handling of exceptions, and ability to establish accountability of actions. Career advancement based on merit Selection and promotions should be based on the qualifications and performance of members. Behavioral theories The behavioral school of management emphasizes the human element in an organization, duly recognizing its importance.It puts more stress on individual attitudes and behaviors and on group processes. The major contributors to this school of thought are named inTable 1. 4. Mary Parker Follet was the pioneer of the behavioural approach to management. She recognized the significance of the human element and attributed greater significance to the functioning of groups in the workplace. According to Follet, the critical role of managers should be to bring constructive change in the organization, following the principle of ‘power with’ rather than ‘power over’.She clarified that power should not be based on hierarchical levels but should be collectively developed, fostering a cooperative concept, involving superiors and subordinates, and finally working together as a team. Hence, the need is for more power sharing. Organizations need to become democratic to accommodate employees and managers. People will work harder when the organization recognizes the individual's motivating desires. Table 1. 4 Major Contributors to the Behavioral School Contributors Contributions Mary Parker Follet (1868–1933)Elton Mayo (1880–1949) Abraham Maslow (1808–1970) Douglas McGregor (1906–64) Group influences in the workplace Effect of human motivation on productivity and outp ut Relates human motivation to a hierarchy of needs Emphasizes human characteristics—theory X and theory Y—and the corresponding style of leadership Chris Argyris (1923–present) Human and organizational development—model I and model II While Follet was the pioneer of the behavioural approach to management, it is Elton Mayo who is recognized as the father of the human relations approach.Mayo and his associates conducted their study at Western Electric's Hawthorne Plant between 1927 and 1932, to evaluate the attitudes and psychological reactions of workers in on-the-job situations. Their experiments were carried out in four phases: (1) illumination experiments (2) relay assembly test room experiments, (3) interview phase, and (4) bank wiring observation room experiment. Illumination experiments These experiments took place initially between 1924 and 1927, in Hawthorne Plant of Western Electric Company and involved industrial engineers of the same company.Th e experiments involved manipulation of illumination for one group of workers (test group) and comparing their performance and productivity with another group for whom illumination was not manipulated (control group). In the first spell of experiment, for the test group (for whom the illumination was manipulated) performance and productivity improved. However, this did not last long. In fact, the control group's performance also rose in between with the alteration in lighting conditions for the test group, even though for the control group there was no change in the lighting conditions.With such contradictory results, researchers concluded that intensity of illumination was not related to productivity of workers. There had to be something besides illumination which influenced the performance of workers in Western Electric Company. Elton Mayo and his associates from Harvard University were involved at this point in conducting the subsequent phase of experiments. Relay assembly test ro om experiments This set of experiments was conducted under the guidance of Elton Mayo between 1927 and 1933. At this stage too, researchers were concerned about factors like working hours, working conditions, refreshments, and temperatures.To start with, the researchers selected six women employees of the relay assembly test room. Their jobs were to assemble relay (a small device) using thirty-five spare parts. Selected women employees (samples) were put in a separate room and briefed about the experiments. In the test room, a number of variables were altered, for example, increased wages and rest period, shortened workday and workweek, etc. In addition, the sample workers were given the freedom to leave their workstation without permission and were also given special attention. Productivity increased over the study period.Such results led the researchers to believe that better treatment of subordinates made them more productive. They highlighted the significance of social relations . Finally, the researchers were convinced that workers would perform better if management looked after their welfare and supervisors paid special attention to them. This condition was later labelled as the Hawthorne effect. Interview phase In this phase of the experiments, about 21,000 people were interviewed over three years between 1928 and 1930. The purpose of the interviews was to explore the attitudes of workers in depth.The conclusions that emerged were: A complaint is not necessarily an objective recital of facts; it may also reflect personal disturbance, the cause of which may be deep-rooted. All objects, persons, and events carry some social meaning. They relate to employees’ satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Workers’ personal situations are results of configurations of relationships, involving sentiments, desires, and interests. Such relational variables, when related to the worker's own past and present interpersonal relations, result in their personal situat ion.Workers assign meaning to their status in the organization and give value to events, objects, and specific features of their environment (hours of work, wages, etc. ). Workers derive satisfaction or dissatisfaction from the social status of an organization. This means that they also look for social rewards, associating them with an organization. Workers’ social demands are influenced by social experiences in groups, both inside and outside the workplace. Bank wiring observation room experiment This part of the Hawthorne experiments was conducted to test some of the ideas that the researchers formed during the interview phase.It was conducted between 1931 and 1932. In this experiment, there were fourteen participants (samples) including wire-men, solder men, and inspectors. There was no change in the physical working conditions. Sample workers were paid based on an incentive pay plan, relating their pay to output. They had the opportunity to earn more by increasing the out put. However, as the researchers observed, the output was constant at a certain level. Analysis of the results showed that the group encourages neither too much nor too little work. They enforce ‘a fair day's work’ on their own.Group norms, therefore, are more important to the worker than money. The study, thus, provided some insights into informal social relations within groups. The Hawthorne experiments, by focusing on the importance of human relations, contributed immensely to management theory. In the behavioural school of thought, other contributors like Abraham Maslow, Douglas McGregor, and Chris Argyris also left a significant impact. While Maslow focused on the importance of human needs, which are major driving forces for human motivation, McGregor made certain assumptions about people, categorizing them under theory X and theory Y.Theory X essentially represents a negative view about people, that is, people are lazy by nature, have little ambition, dislike work , avoid responsibility, and require direction to work. Theory Y, on the contrary, assumes that people are more positive, capable of self-control, innovative and creative, and they do not inherently dislike work. These theories have been further discussed in detail in Chapter 5. Chris Argyris's contributions to the behavioral school of thought are extremely important.His contributions comprise the maturity–immaturity theory, the integration of individual and organizational goals, and the patterns of model I and model II. According to the maturity–immaturity theory, people progress from a stage of immaturity and dependence to a state of maturity and independence. If organizations keep their employees in a dependent state, they allow them to remain immature and thereby prevent them from achieving their potential. Argyris further contended that a formal organization develops a rigid structure, compelling people to behave in an immature way. This leads to incongruencebetwee n the individual and organizational goals, hinders organizational development, leads to failure, and fosters frustration and conflict. People end up showing their aggression, regression, and suppression in various ways. Model I and model II patterns are two different assumptions. Workers in the model I type of organization are motivated by the desire to manipulate others and protect themselves from others. Workers in the model II type of organization are less manipulative and more willing to learn and take risks. Argyris, therefore, suggested that managers try to create a model II type of organization.Likert and Drucker have also contributed significantly to this school of thought. Likert attributes low productivity and poor morale of employees to a typical job-centred supervision technique. He has suggested some typical leadership styles to ensure better productivity and improved morale of workers. These have been discussed in detail in Chapter 6. Drucker, on the other hand, pionee red several modern management concepts in the fields of innovation, creativity, problem solving, organization design, and management by objectives (MBO).All his principles have been acknowledged and are referred to throughout this book. Criticism of the neo-classical school of thought Despite the brilliant contributions by the behavioral school of thought to the theories of management, it was criticized on the following grounds: It is believed that the procedures and analysis of the findings and the conclusions drawn thereon have little relevance. In fact, the conclusions are not supported by adequate evidence.The relationship between satisfaction of workers and productivity was established with simplistic assumptions, while in reality the situation is more complex due to behavioral phenomena. Further, all these studies failed to focus on the attitudes of workers, although attitudes play a crucial role in influencing workers’ performance and productivity. Modern Approaches So me modern approaches have played a significant role in the evolution of management theories, such as the quantitative school, the systems theory, and the contingency theory. The quantitative school of thought emerged during World War II.During the war, managers, government officials, and scientists were brought together to help the army to effectively utilize resources. These experts, using some earlier mathematical approaches to the concepts advocated by Taylor and Gantt, solved many logistic problems in the war. Subsequent to the war, such techniques were applied by many organizations to solve their business problems. This school of thought extensively utilizes statistics, optimization models, information models, and computer simulations for decision making and economic effectiveness to solve business problems.It has various branches, such as management science, operations management, and management information systems. The management science approach visualizes management as a lo gical entity, expressing management in terms of mathematical symbols, relationships, and measurement data. Also known as the operations research approach, it is applied in areas like capital budgeting and cash-flow management, production scheduling, product strategy development, human resource planning, and inventory management.Various mathematical tools like queuing theory, linear programming, PERT, CPM, decision theory, simulation, replacement, probability theory and sampling, time-series analysis, and index numbers are used to minimize the error in management decisions. The operations management approach is primarily concerned with production management and its related areas. In fact, it is difficult to draw a line between management science and operations management. Most of the mathematical tools mentioned earlier are used in operations management.Moreover, this approach also helps in decision making in other functional areas like finance, marketing, and human resource manageme nt. The management information systems approach focuses on designing and implementing computer-based information systems for use by management. It converts raw data into information inputs, which are subsequently used by management for decision making. Modern management information systems help in enterprise-wide decision making, integrating all functions of management.Enterprise-wide decision support systems (such as human resource information systems) are used for critical or strategically important decisions, as these provide valuable information inputs. An extension of the quantitative school of thought is the systems theory approach. This approach considers the organization as a whole because of the interdependent nature of activities, requiring the organization to interact with external environmental factors. In this competitive scenario,organizations cannot function in isolation. It has to operate in open systems, interacting with the environment.Whether it is new-product dev elopment or employee selection, the organization has to consider them as open systems, as its decisions are interrelated and interdependent with the environmental situation. Synergy is the phenomenon of open systems of management by which the total system is more than a simple sum of its parts. It means that if a manager effectively coordinates the efforts of related sub-systems, the result will be greater than the sum total of such independent efforts, that is, 2 + 2 will be greater than 4. The systems approach to management is also important because it helps in avoiding entropy.Entropy is a syndrome wherein systems and processes eventually decay. By relating the organization to the environment, following a systems approach, such a situation can be averted. The contingency theory approach discards the concept of universality in management principles and determines managerial decisions considering situational factors. The task of a manager, as per this theory, is to identify which t echniques will—in a particular situation, under particular circumstances, at a particular point of time—best contribute to achieving organizational goals.The theory contends that organizational phenomena exist in a logical pattern, which managers can understand gradually by interpreting various situations. They can thereby frame their managerial styles, which vary from situation to situation. The contingency theory and the systems theory are together classified as the integrative school of management thought because these two theories integrate the classical, behavioral, and quantitative theories into a framework that uses only the best of each approach in a given situation.